[161], By February 1795, France had annexed the Austrian Netherlands, established their frontier on the left bank of the Rhine and replaced the Dutch Republic with the Batavian Republic, a satellite state. As internal and external threats to the Republic increased, the position worsened; dealing with this by printing assignats led to inflation and higher prices. Later that year, ceding to popular pressure, [193] A decade later the Napoleonic Code confirmed and perpetuated women's second-class status. Attack and take of the Crte--Pierrot (March 24, 1802) by Auguste Raffet. A major slave revolt followed in August. [73], Held in the Tuileries Palace under virtual house arrest, Louis XVI was urged by his brother and wife to re-assert his independence by taking refuge with Bouill, who was based at Montmdy with 10,000 soldiers considered loyal to the Crown. "[112] [b], At the height of the Terror, the slightest hint of counter-revolutionary thought could place one under suspicion, and even its supporters were not immune. Og left for Saint-Domingue where an uprising against white landowners broke out in October 1790. '[42], The short-lived unity enforced on the Assembly by a common threat quickly dissipated. [6] Antiquated farming methods and transportation networks failed to keep up with these numbers. The sentence was carried out on 21 January on the Place de la Rvolution, now the Place de la Concorde. [26] More than two-thirds of the clergy lived on less than 500 livres per year, and were often closer to the urban and rural poor than those elected for the Third Estate, where voting was restricted to male French taxpayers, aged 25 or over. Some historians, such as Franois Furet, in Interpreting the French Revolution, and Marisa Linton, in Choosing Terror, have evoked a Jacobin ideology without however defining it. [104], Key areas of focus for the new government included creating a new state ideology, economic regulation and winning the war. [145], It has been suggested the Directory did not collapse for economic or military reasons, but because by 1799, many 'preferred the uncertainties of authoritarian rule to the continuing ambiguities of parliamentary politics'. [275] He also stated that Jacobin-Marxist interpretations of the revolution harboured a totalitarian tendency,[276] but conceded that they had increased the understanding of the role of peasants and the urban masses in the revolution. The outcome of the French Revolution, which began in 1789 and lasted for more than a decade, had numerous social, economic, and political effects not just in France but also in Europe and beyond. [258] The influx of religious migrants also reinvigorated the local Catholic Church, with exiled priests establishing a number of parishes throughout the Canadas.[258]. By the time peace finally came in 1815, the conflict had involved every major European power as well as the United States, redrawn the map of Europe and expanded into the Americas, the Middle East, and the Indian Ocean. [269][270] Albert Soboul, also writing in the Marxist-Republican tradition, published a major study of the sans-culottes in 1958. [274], Recent studies of the French colonies have largely abandoned the Jacobin-Marxist approach of classic studies such as C. L. R. James' The Black Jacobins (1938) and Aim Csaire's Toussaint Louverture: La Rvolution franaise et le problme colonial (1960). [62] The church was the largest individual landowner in France, controlling nearly 10% of all estates and levied tithes, effectively a 10% tax on income, collected from peasant farmers in the form of crops. In rural areas, wild rumours and paranoia resulted in the formation of militia and an agrarian insurrection known as la Grande Peur. [110], At Cholet on 17 October, the Republican army won a decisive victory over the Vende rebels, and the survivors escaped into Brittany. It actually lasted for another six years, with far more violent and momentous events . The remaining deputies from the other two Estates were invited to join, but the Assembly made it clear they intended to legislate with or without their support. [205] Olwen Hufton argues some wanted to protect the Church from heretical changes enforced by revolutionaries, viewing themselves as "defenders of faith". [224], The church was a primary target during the Terror, due to its association with "counter-revolutionary" elements, resulting in the persecution of priests and destruction of churches and religious images throughout France. 1799 - Napoleon . [63], The August decrees abolished tithes, and on 2 November the Assembly confiscated all church property, the value of which was used to back a new paper currency known as assignats. [162] In October 1797, a series of defeats by Bonaparte in Italy led Austria to agree to the Treaty of Campo Formio, in which they formally ceded the Netherlands and recognised the Cisalpine Republic. As a result, the Directory was characterised by "chronic violence, ambivalent forms of justice, and repeated recourse to heavy-handed repression. Compare the outcomes of the American Revolution with those of later Latin American revolutions. The Girondists attempted to form a constitutional monarchy as was done in England, but ultimately lost out to the Jacobins , who abolished the Monarchy and established the First Republic. [106] The new class of military leaders included a young colonel named Napoleon Bonaparte, who was appointed commander of artillery at the siege of Toulon thanks to his friendship with Augustin Robespierre. The British take Charleston, S.C., capture a large patriot army, and deal the rebels one of their worst defeats of the war. August 8: The royal treasury is declared empty, and the Parliament of Paris refuses to reform the tax system or loan the Crown more money. [122], There are various interpretations of the Terror and the violence with which it was conducted; Marxist historian Albert Soboul saw it as essential to defend the Revolution from external and internal threats. In economics, therefore, the nobility declined while middle-class Belgian entrepreneurs flourished because of their inclusion in a large market, paving the way for Belgium's leadership role after 1815 in the Industrial Revolution on the Continent. In August 1789, colonial slave owners and merchants formed the rival Club de Massiac to represent their interests. In the Austrian Netherlands, the Brabant Revolution succeeded in expelling Austrian forces and established the new United Belgian States. The election results were cancelled, sixty-three leading royalists deported to French Guiana and new laws passed against migrs, Royalists and ultra-Jacobins. Recent arguments over the use of Muslim religious symbols in schools, such as wearing headscarves, have been explicitly linked to the conflict over Catholic rituals and symbols during the Revolution. When Jacques Hbert called for a popular revolt against the "henchmen of Louis Capet" on 24 May, he was arrested by the Commission of Twelve, a Girondin-dominated tribunal set up to expose 'plots'. The revolutionaries had, at first, tolerated languages and dialects other than French. Edmund Burke responded in November 1790 with his own pamphlet, Reflections on the Revolution in France, attacking the French Revolution as a threat to the aristocracy of all countries. The new laws were gathered together in the 1791 Constitution, and submitted to Louis XVI, who pledged to defend it "from enemies at home and abroad". [225], The Concordat of 1801 established the rules for a relationship between the Catholic Church and French State that lasted until it was abrogated by the French Third Republic on 11 December 1905. Other estimates of the death toll range from 170,000, In one exchange, a Hbertist named Vadier threatened to 'gut that fat, Je crains le despotisme de Paris, et je ne veux pas que ceux qui y disposent de l'opinion des hommes qu'ils garent dominent la convention nationale et la France entire. The upshot was a revolt in 1798, led by Wolfe Tone, that was crushed by Britain. Du Pont tried becoming a printer, but it was hard to make money, so he left for America with his family. This led to the "Constitutional Act 1791", which split the Province into two separate colonies, each with its own electoral assembly, the predominantly French-speaking Lower Canada and predominantly English-speaking Upper Canada. When this resulted in escalating inflation, the response was to impose price controls and persecute private speculators and traders, creating a Black market. Wikisource has original works on the topic: Significant civil and political events by year, Constitutional monarchy (July 1789 September 1792), Political crisis and fall of the Girondins. [232], The Revolution meant an end to arbitrary royal rule and held out the promise of rule by law under a constitutional order, but it did not rule out a monarch. In La Rvolution franaise et la fin des colonies, Y. Bnot noted, in a chapter entitled Dans le miroir truqu des historiens (In the rigged mirror of historians), the general silence of most of the historiography on matters related to slavery and colonialism. [125] Despite his links to Augustin Robespierre, military success in Italy meant Napoleon Bonaparte escaped censure. Vendors sold programmes listing the names of those scheduled to die. The region of modern-day Belgium was divided between two polities: the Austrian Netherlands and Prince-Bishopric of Lige. Melzer, Sara E., and Leslie W. Rabine, eds. In return, the state assumed responsibilities such as paying the clergy and caring for the poor, the sick and the orphaned. It was celebrated on the left as the people's avenger, for example in the revolutionary song La guillotine permanente,[187] and cursed as the symbol of the Terror by the right. On 16 July 1789, two days after the Storming of the Bastille, John Frederick Sackville, serving as ambassador to France, reported to Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Francis Osborne, 5th Duke of Leeds, "Thus, my Lord, the greatest revolution that we know anything of has been effected with, comparatively speaking if the magnitude of the event is considered the loss of very few lives. One of the most significant was the Jacobin club; originally a forum for general debate, by August 1790 it had over 150 members, split into different factions. Activists included Girondists like Olympe de Gouges, author of the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen, and Charlotte Corday, the killer of Marat. [64] On 13 February 1790, religious orders and monasteries were dissolved, while monks and nuns were encouraged to return to private life. Recent French Revolutionary Historiography,", Landes, Joan B. The typical businessman owned a small store, mill or shop, with family help and a few paid employees; large-scale industry was less common than in other industrialising nations. Other nobles just made do as best they could, working educated jobs. [139], Removal of price controls and a collapse in the value of the assignat led to inflation and soaring food prices. In a speech made to the convention on 26 July, he claimed certain members were conspiring against the Republic, an almost certain death sentence if confirmed. On 10 September, the majority led by Sieys and Talleyrand rejected this in favour of a single assembly, while Louis retained only a "suspensive veto"; this meant he could delay the implementation of a law, but not block it. [191], The role of women in the Revolution has long been a topic of debate. The French Revolution Though the queen had supported Jacques Necker 's return to power at the end of August 1788 and had approved of the concession of double representation to the Third Estate, her unpopularity was at its height when the Estates-General convened at Versailles in May 1789. [44], In response, the Assembly published the August Decrees which abolished feudalism and other privileges held by the nobility, notably exemption from tax. Repetition had staled even this most grisly of entertainments, and audiences grew bored. They sternly reminded women to stay home and tend to their families by leaving public affairs to the men. On 20 June, the Assembly met in a tennis court outside Versailles and swore not to disperse until a new constitution had been agreed. Despite a series of military victories, many won by Napoleon Bonaparte, political divisions and economic stagnation resulted in the Directory being replaced by the Consulate in November 1799. [56] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, considered a philosophical founder of the revolution,[57][58][59][60] wrote it was "manifestly contrary to the law of nature that a handful of people should gorge themselves with superfluities while the hungry multitude goes in want of necessities. [203] One major consequence was the dechristianisation of France, a movement strongly rejected by many devout people; especially for women living in rural areas, the closing of the churches meant a loss of normality. They expressed these demands using pamphlets and clubs such as the Cercle Social, whose largely male members viewed themselves as contemporary feminists. Rates varied widely from one region to another, often bore little or no relation to the amounts set out in official decrees, and were collected inconsistently. Relaxation of price controls and rampant inflation caused increasing unrest among the sans-culottes, but the improved military situation reduced fears the Republic was in danger. The assemblies refused to implement the decree and fighting broke out between the coloured population of Saint-Domingue and white colonists, each side recruiting slaves to their forces. Unlike Britain, where Parliament determined both expenditures and taxes, in France the Crown controlled spending, but not revenue. An effort was made to replace the Catholic Church altogether with the Cult of Reason, and with civic festivals replacing religious ones, leading to attacks by locals on state officials. Robert Tombs, "Inventing politics: from Bourbon Restoration to republican monarchy," in Martin S. Alexander, ed., Marc H. Lerner, "The Helvetic Republic: An Ambivalent Reception of French Revolutionary Liberty,", Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, Militant feminism in the French Revolution, Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen, Society of Revolutionary Republican Women, The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, List of people associated with the French Revolution, List of political groups in the French Revolution, List of films set during the French Revolution and French Revolutionary Wars, "Illustrations from Rvolutions de Paris", "Marche des Marseillois, satirical etching", "The Consequences of Radical Reform: The French Revolution", "Law and social capital: Evidence from the Code Napoleon in Germany", "16881789. In any event, the new constitution was suspended until France was at peace. His fall in first 1814 and then 1815 saw the return of the French monarchy, clearly a national return to pre-revolutionary times, even if France could not return to that era. [277], From the 1990s, Western scholars largely abandoned Marxist interpretations of the revolution in terms of bourgeoisie-proletarian class struggle as anachronistic.
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