It is understood that reoffending is a major problem, and this is reflected in governmental statistics. It should be noted that some factors identified for predicting gang involvement are often offences in and of themselves (for example, illegal drug use). Addictive behaviors, 37(7), 747-775. Government reports tend to be limited in their exploration of the intersectionality of factors that combine to produce the patterns of disparity relating to CJS outcomes. Viewing things differently: The dimensions of public perceptions of police legitimacy. The section above demonstrates consistent patterns of disparity where BAME people tend to be more likely to be arrested, charged and convicted relative to White people for the range of specific crimes focused on in this paper. [footnote 28], The UK governments Serious Violence Strategy of 2018 defines serious violence as specific types of crime, such as homicide, knife crime, and gun crime, and areas of criminality where serious violence or its threat is inherent, such as in gangs and county lines drug dealing.[footnote 29]. Data is also largely cross-sectional and correlational, so cannot actually address the underlying causes of crime or explore offending over the life-course, particularly as this relates to the diverse BAME communities of the UK. Find out about the Energy Bills Support Scheme, The report of the Commission on Race and Ethnic Disparities: supporting research, Patterns of ethnic disparity in crime based on a review of existing governmental studies, Factors which may be correlated (though not necessarily causative) with people who commit these crimes[footnote 21], Gaps in existing research and evidence to address known data collection and quality issues. Research that has focused on property crime prevention is based primarily on addressing situational factors. (2014) Why the crime drop?, in M. Tonry (ed.) The latest police recorded crime figures show that there were 47,119 offences involving a knife or sharp instrument recorded by the police in the year ending September 2020. , Bartol, C. R., & Bartol, A. M. (2011). Legitimacy is one such factor. Accordingly, longer-term trends in the data suggest that the proportion of drug prosecutions where the defendant is White have decreased from 71% in 2014, to 63% in 2018, while there was an increase in the percentage of Black defendants, from 15% to 21% over the same period. In 45.7% of offences, no suspect was identified at all. [footnote 89] First, those who are LO because their levels of self-reported criminality extended over a long period of time and then increasing their level of offending in adulthood and who were then convicted. Justice Matters: Disproportionality. , Legitimacy and trust are empirically similar yet conceptually distinct. On the run: Fugitive life in an American city. Indeed, this was the only offence category where custodial sentencing was consistently more likely for all BAME men relative to the White group[footnote 8] but also for Black women, who were 2.3 times more likely to receive a custodial sentence for drugs relative to White women. , Ibid; Nee, C., and Taylor, M. (1988). overall, men were 6 times as likely to be arrested as women - there were 20 arrests for every 1,000 men, and 3 arrests for every 1,000 women black men were over 3 times as likely to be arrested. [footnote 66]. However, further analysis by the MOJ[footnote 6] of drug-related offences also demonstrated distinctive disproportionality in sentencing. [footnote 80], The SPOOCS was distinctive in that it explored the early stages of desistance in a sample of mostly persistent offenders, and highlighted both the precariousness and the sense of struggle involved.1 This study showed that reoffending among this sample was high. Weapon-carrying and the reduction of violent harm. [footnote 57] Far from distinct behaviours, offending is actually a complex arrangement of behaviours that cannot be understood through single-factor explanations. In this total, 50% were under the age of 25 and the majority (90%) were male. Ethnicities, racism, and criminal justice in Liebling, A., Maruna, S. and McAra, L. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 27(5), 601-644; OBrien, K., Daffern, M., Chu, C. M., & Thomas, S. D. (2013). [footnote 90] Second, those who self reported high levels of criminality in their youth but were either lucky or skilled enough to avoid a conviction until adulthood. In 2017, 83% of offenders were male, 35% were aged between 17 to 24, and 69% were BAME. 29 Apr 2023 12:52:45 Several studies have shown that the drugs mostly associated with acquisitive crime include heroin, crack cocaine and methamphetamine. , Ibid; Liebling, A., Arnold, H. and Straub, C. (2011). Police data provides information about the incidents they record as such. When compared to 2014, an increase in prosecutions was seen across all ethnic groups, apart from those categorised as White, which saw a decrease of 2% in prosecutions. Therefore, there is strong evidence of an ethnicity effect related not just to arrest but also to imprisonment in relation to drug offences, with BAME offenders more likely to be given custodial sentences than White offenders. Somali nationals were referenced by 33% of police forces (with lines predominantly originating in London or Manchester), and Western Balkan Organised Crime Groups were referenced by 9% of police forces. Knife crime offences across all groups were at the second highest level in 75 years, the Office for National Statistics (ONS) found. Research Review: The relationship between childhood violence exposure and juvenile antisocial behavior: a meta-analytic review. Both conviction rates and custodial sentencing was lower than for White men. [footnote 15] However, the likelihood of proceeding at a magistrates court and of being committed to Crown Court for trial were either less or equal when compared with White men. Bottoms, A., & Tankebe, J. Methamphetamine use and acquisitive crime: Evidence of a relationship. It is generally the case that custodial sentencing is associated with a variety of factors, such as offender age, ethnicity, offence type and court where the case was heard. Preventing gang and youth violence: a review of the risk and protective factors. Stone et al. Having identified these research relevant geographical locations, there would need to be agreements reached between the research team and the relevant local stakeholders (for example, data sharing agreements with and between the local police force, relevant local authorities, and NHS) in order to allow the different stakeholders and the research team to systematically gather primary quantitative and qualitative data in a consistent and comparable way. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, (516), 1. [footnote 7] Their analysis found custodial sentencing for all BAME men and Black women committing drug offences was particularly disproportionate, but only at Crown Court. Observations of police-public interactions and in-depth interviews can be used in conjunction with the statistics to help explain why the broad patterns exist. [footnote 13]. Merseyside is identified as the second highest exporter, affecting 42% of other UK police force areas. This long-term trend is concordant with the latest data. Gang membership and drug involvement: Untangling the complex relationship. , Tankebe, J. Burglars invariably make rational decisions based on target suitability, and various situational risk factors have been identified in the literature. Black offenders had the highest proportionate rates of reoffending for this period, offenders from the Other ethnic groups had the lowest rates. Associations between police-recorded ethnic background and being sentenced to prison in England and Wales. [footnote 12] A slightly different pattern was evident for young Mixed ethnicity men, who were 4.2 times more likely than young White men to be arrested for robbery. This special collection includes the offences: homicide; attempted. There was major concern about knife killings in London in 2021 when a record 30 teenagers died. The British journal of criminology, 50(3), 530-549. Observers have stated that knife crime within . For Asian and Other (including Chinese) victims, the principal suspect was more likely to be a family member (18% and 16% respectively) relative to White or Black victims (8% and 7% respectively). , HM Inspectorate of Prisons (2016). In 2017, 53% of possession of knife suspects were Black, and 37% of all suspects were Black men under the age of 25. In contrast to the Serious Violence Strategy, where the evidence of a relationship between ethnicity and violence was at best mixed, the Home Office report of 2019 found no association between ethnicity and serious violence related behaviours (for example, carrying of weapons). ASB concerns acts which causes nuisance or annoyance in the housing context, or harassment, alarm, or distress in public spaces. [footnote 91], Bowling, B. and Phillips, C., 2007. Certain other groups (the Bangladeshi group, especially) showed some evidence for an increase in crime and ASB over time. The British Journal of Criminology, 59(3), 571-593. Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic disproportionality in the Criminal Justice System in England and Wales, table A2.3 in Appendix 2. (2016) of 179 empirical studies and 107 independent data explored the relationship between gang membership and offending and found that there is a fairly strong relationship between gang membership and offending. Associations between ethnic background and being sentenced to prison in the Crown Court in England and Wales in 2015. (2012) conducted a comprehensive review of the literature that identified several risk factors for, and protective factors of, illegal drug use in young adulthood (aged between 18 to 26) (see Table 5 below). Weapons and violence: A review of theory and research. Governmental and other administrative reports tend to be based on the same data. The disparities in police contact then flow into distinctively different ethnic pathways through the CJS. Due to data limitations the information supplied by the police in relation to the ethnicity of county lines, nominals should be treated with caution. For example, the Metropolitan Polices gangs matrix was criticised by Amnesty International for being racially discriminatory, with young Black men being over-represented, and 38% of people on the matrix being judged to pose no risk of committing violence. The rates for Asian, Black and Mixed ethnic groups were invariantly higher than the national average across the same time period. Trust is a social glue and lubricant which makes cooperation between individuals easier. Social disadvantage and crime: A criminological puzzle. In 2021/22, there were 66,023 stop and searches carried out on people of white ethnic appearance by the police in London, compared with 48,158 people of Black ethnic apperance, and 25,624 of. , Liebling, A., Price, D., & Shefer, G. (2011). Policy Exchange's report, Knife Crime in the Capital , reveals the real injustice that at least four out of five gang related homicide victims and perpetrators in London are black or ethnic minority. Find the most up-to-date statistics about Crime in London . For example, 2 studies[footnote 48] showed that burglars select the most vulnerable targets based on aspects such as occupancy, wealth, layout, and security (see Table 6 below). Secondly, this problem is exacerbated by the fact that the bulk of the UK reports are all ultimately based on the same interrelated datasets provided by the government, and obtained from stakeholders largely through statutory reporting requirements. Almost three quarters (1,405 or 72%) of all homicide victims (where ethnicity was known) over the three-year period were from the White ethnic group. , Jackson, J., Bradford, B., Hough, M., Myhill, A., Quinton, P., & Tyler, T. R. (2012). This lack of capacity to undertake fine-grained analysis is a major problem that cannot be easily overcome. Heroin use and acquisitive crime in an English community. This is nearly twice the rate as among the wider population, at 9%. In 2018, the ACSL for possession of weapons offences was highest for Asian offenders at 17.1 months and lowest for Chinese or Other offenders at 8.8 months. News stories, speeches, letters and notices, Reports, analysis and official statistics, Data, Freedom of Information releases and corporate reports. 50% of knife . [footnote 3]. , Sztompka, P. (1999). , Cromwell, P. F., Olson, J.F. The journal of criminal law and criminology, 119-170. Explaining ethnic variations in crime and antisocial behavior in the United Kingdom. ; National Crime Agency (2017). , Brown, J. and Sturge, G. (2020). For example, Home Office data in 2018 showed that in England and Wales only 8.2% of crimes recorded by the police resulted in a suspect being charged or court summoned. , Smith (2004). Wed like to set additional cookies to understand how you use GOV.UK, remember your settings and improve government services. This is a 14% increase compared to last year. Dyfed-Powys had the lowest rate of 34 offences per 100,000 individuals (up from 28 in 2020/21). (2012). , Raby, C., & Jones, F. (2016). It is evident that disparities in recorded offending in relationship to these categories of behaviours begin with inequalities in relation to police contact and in particular the police use of stop and search powers. Download Publication. A similar pattern emerged when examining knife crime with injury. In turn, they rely on decontextualised statistics based on fragmented data taken from multiple agencies and organisations. For example, CJS data can be used to assess the broad overall patterns of criminality and how this relates to ethnicity, but this data does not tell us why these patterns arise. , https://crimesciencejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40163-020-00132-7, MOJ (2015): Associations between ethnic background and being sentenced to prison in the Crown Court in England and Wales in 2015. Language of the Gun: A Semiotic for Law & Social Science. Ethnicity and Causal Mechanisms. Taking stock of the relationship between gang membership and offending: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior 43, no. On the basis of that paper, the RDU commissioned us to undertake a systematic rapid evidence review of a limited range of published governmental and academic studies of crime and ethnic disparities. It is uncertain whether or not the disparity in rates of imprisonment comes from patterns in different types of underlying offending. For every 100,000 people in the capital, there were 169 knife offences in 2018-19. Importantly, this data is indicative of disparities in police contact in the form of stop and search, which are then associated with downstream differences in patterns of arrest. (2000). The English countryside is the least of the average ethnic-minority person's worries tbh. Dont include personal or financial information like your National Insurance number or credit card details. Around 1,400 offenders convicted for acquisitive violence were examined. [footnote 75]. Risk factors associated with knife crime in United Kingdom among young people aged 10-24 years: A systematic review. The decontextualised figures supplied in many of the government-mandated annual or biannual statistical bulletins perhaps tell us more about disproportionate police practices (for example, use of stop and search) and potential disparities in the criminal justice system than they can ever reveal about genuine underlying variations in involvement in actual crime. the systemic violence associated with the illegal drug market. , Haylock, S., Boshari, T., Alexander, E. C., Kumar, A., Manikam, L., & Pinder, R. (2020). , Ministry of Justice (2016). Accordingly, an approach based on a range of methodologies allows for data triangulation where the weaknesses inherent in some datasets are offset by the strengths of others. Teenagers at risk: The safeguarding needs of young people in gangs and violent peer groups. Ministry of Justice, available online. , Trust and desistance issues are dealt with in detail in Appendix 1 and 2. [footnote 25]. Other factors (apart from trust) are important in explaining crime. They were marginally more likely to be proceeded against at a magistrates court but no more likely to be convicted or sentenced to custody there compared with young White men. It confirms that the Metropolitan Police is losing a battle against knife crime that is out of control . Criminology, 51(1), 103-135. It also inhibits an analysis of how the relationship between victims and offenders may differ according to ethnicity, crime type and context. Relatedly, a report by an independent educational charity showed data on the percentage of young adults prosecuted for breaching dispersal powers by ethnicity in London. Prevalence of life-course-persistent, adolescence-limited, and late-onset offenders: A systematic review of prospective longitudinal studies. Trust: A sociological theory. , Home Office Report (2019). Between 2009 to 2010, and 2018 to 2019 the annual stop and search rate in England and Wales reduced from 25 to 7 per 1,000 people. A further review by Haylock et al in 2020 of risk factors associated with weapon-related crime for young people aged 10 to 24 within the UK strengthens both of these reports. First, quantitative methods tend to give an incomplete picture of the drivers of crime. [footnote 58], What can be observed from these studies is a pattern that highlights how a series of interrelated factors appear to be able to predict broad patterns of offending to a reasonable level. However, the data also indicated that these figures can largely be attributed to possession of Class B drugs offences (including cannabis), which accounted for nearly half of all drug prosecutions (47%) and drug-related convictions (48%) for Black defendants. While all BAME men were more likely than White men to be committed to Crown Court for trial, conviction rates for this category of offences were then actually marginally lower than, or proportionate to, White men. For example, in 2018 to 2019, the Metropolitan Police Service made 48% of all stops and searches in England and Wales. Instead, new research should be developed that would allow for the underlying drivers of crime and disparity within CJS in the UK. Victims of knife injuries shared a similar profile with offenders. Disparity in relationship to robbery offences were particularly salient. [footnote 88] There appear to be 2 groups of LO offenders. For example, London nominals were reported to be mainly Black. In October 2020, we developed a scoping paper designed to assist the Race Disparity Unit (RDU) in focusing its research questions as these relate to the current Commission on racial disparities. This study combined quantitative and qualitative methods to obtain an understanding of the processes of desistance among a sample of people who had begun offending in early adulthood. Firstly, all these studies essentially use the same datasets and other studies which are then based on each other. , Mills & Ford (2018). Between year ending March 2011 and year ending March 2018 there was an increase in the proportion of offenders receiving an immediate custodial sentence for a knife and offensive weapon offence,. [footnote 68] A lack of trust can have a threshold effect in that too much distrust can result in mutual suspicion and hostility. (2013). RT @rakibehsan: The English countryside is the least of the average ethnic-minority person's worries tbh. [footnote 20] The study found that Black African offenders aged 18 to 25 were more likely to breach dispersal powers than offenders in the same age group from different ethnic groups (White British, White Other, Black Other, Asian and Asian British). Such data tells us very little about the actual underlying levels of crime, given that the majority of offending goes unreported. [footnote 42] This research suggests that drug use leads to involvement in criminal behaviour due to: Perhaps unsurprisingly, the risk and protective factors for drug use overlap with those for violent crime and gang involvement outlined above. This work showed that in London in 2017, 50% of knife crime offenders were BAME (up from 44% in 2008). [footnote 19] Their study argues that ethnic disparities in ASB do exist. We can reference 2 major and widely-cited academic studies on desistance, along with a report by HM Inspectorate of Prison (2016), and data from GOV.UK. Despite the fact that reoffending is a major problem, it is widely understood in academic literature that even the most persistent and prolific offenders can and generally do eventually desist from crime. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy: An International Journal of Theory & Practice, 12(3), 177-190.
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